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Topic 2: Referencing in The SciencesIndex page
Workshops indexTask D: Using formal rather than informal language
Summary
Much scientific writing uses a formal rather than informal tone. A formal scientific writing style uses contractions and abbreviations appropriately, avoids clichés, uses formal words and adopts an objective writing style. The following tasks will give you some practice in these skills.
What will I learn?
- The correct use of contractions and abbreviations
- To avoid using clichés
- To use formal expression
- How to write objectively
Using contractions and abbreviations
Generally, we avoid using contractions and abbreviations in academic writing. In science writing, however, contractions and abbreviations are used; for example, in chemical symbols, units of measurement and many others. Nonetheless, some contractions of words and phrases should be avoided. The following exercises introduce you to the appropriate use of contractions and abbreviations.
Activity
Read the following rules and exercises, identify the contractions and abbreviations, then rewrite the sentences correctly in the scratch pad.
Rule 1: Never use e.g., etc., & or i.e. in text UNLESS they are part of a sentence that is enclosed in parentheses (e.g. like this).
Exercise 1
Nonmetals, e.g. carbon & oxygen, don’t conduct heat.
Rule 2: You should write the scientific name in full the first time, followed by the abbreviation in parentheses (e.g. DNA), and thereafter use the abbreviation.
Exercise 2
Fragments of DNA can be amplified using the PCR process. Although PCR is straightforward, it’s important to follow standard protocols.
NEVER use the contraction it’s (which means it is) in academic
writing.
Rule 3: When you are writing about different taxa from the same genus, you should contract the generic name to its initial letter after the first usage. Do not do this if it leads to ambiguity; for example, if referring to two genera beginning with the same initial.
Exercise 3
The three wheat taxa that were trialled were Triticum aestivum subspecies compactum, Triticum turgidum and Triticum monococcum.
You should use contractions such as subsp. for subspecies.
For more information on using scientific names, see FAQ No 7: How do I write biological names?
Rule 4: When writing a chemical formula, whether you use the full name (e.g. carbon dioxide) or the abbreviation (CO2 ) would depend on the context, the intended audience and how many times the phrase is used in a piece of writing. Generally, if it is mentioned only once, write it out in full; but if it is referred to many times, the abbreviation would be more appropriate.
Exercise 4
Increased atmospheric CO2 may raise Australia’s average temperature by 2 degrees Celsius.
In general, avoid using contractions of standard English words or phrases in science writing. However, some scientific contractions or abbreviations are acceptable and should be used.
More info
- Shortened forms of words - ASO fact sheet
- Abbreviations and acronyms
Avoiding clichés
Clichés are trite, almost meaningless expressions that have been worn out from overuse. They weaken any writing, and are particularly out of place in scientific writing.
Activity
Read the following sentences carefully, then rewrite them without the clichés.
Exercise 1
Needless to say, in this day and age it is essential to have some computer skills.
Exercise 2
This chemical offers new hope as a major step forward in the treatment of scabies.
Exercise 3
At the end of the day, it boils down to protecting our biodiversity, because our children’s future is in our hands.
Using formal expression
In general, choose a formal rather than colloquial style, but note that this does NOT mean choosing unnecessarily obscure or complex words where simpler words would suffice. (Of course, where specialised scientific vocabulary is required, accurate choice of words is crucial.) The following activity covers some of the more common problems with word choice encountered in scientific writing.
Activity
Words that are used inappropriately in the sentences are written in red. Read the sentences carefully. Try to identify the problem with the red word, and then rewrite the sentence.
Exercise 1
From Figure 1, we can see that a lot of anticlines are in the road cutting.
Exercise 2
Jones (2003) said that a sudden change in internal energy happens when substances get from one phase to another.
Exercise 3
Bean seedlings grown in the dark got yellow, etiolated and eventually died.
More info
Writing objectively
One of the hallmarks of scientific writing is objectivity. Objective writing is achieved by:
- developing assertions and arguments on the basis of evidence, rather than any preconceived beliefs
- considering all available evidence, not just that which supports your current ideas
- minimising the use of the first person ('I') in order to achieve a more objective tone to the text
- presenting your case on the basis of logic and evidence, rather than using rhetorical or emotive language to persuade readers of your position.
Activity
Read the following two samples of writing, each dealing with the same scientific information about grazing systems, then answer the questions that follow.
Sample 1
Continual grazing has obviously caused most of the problems we have with deteriorating pasture quality (Wilson, 1994). You only have to look around you to see the damage that is being done by having sheep grazing all year round and eating the most palatable species all the time. This leads to a whole lot of really serious problems such as reduced production, erosion, salinisation and changed water relations in the soil (Dowling et al., 2005).
I believe that a much more sensible option is to use some form of time-control or cell grazing. Under these grazing systems, pastures are intensively grazed for a few days, then rested for a much longer period such as a few months (Seis, 2001). I feel that the advantages of this are obvious. Because the pasture is rested it gives perennial plants a chance to regenerate, especially the palatable species (Seis, 2001), and this means we can use less superphosphate. Time-control grazing has to be better for the environment, for production and the livelihood of families on the land, and I think it is time that many of us changed our farming habits. (See the Reference list)
Sample 2
Continual grazing is widely considered to be associated with declines in pasture quality (e.g. Dowling et al., 2005; Seis, 2001; Wilson, 1994). One of the major problems identified with continual grazing is that palatable species such as legumes and perennial grasses tend to be lost. This leads to a loss of production, erosion, salinisation and changed water relations in the soil (Dowling et al., 2005; Wilson, 1994).
For these reasons many farmers and agricultural researchers are advocating some form of time-control or cell grazing as an alternative to continual grazing. Under these grazing systems, pastures are intensively grazed for a few days, then rested for a much longer period such as a few months. This grazing pattern has been found by some graziers to enhance regeneration of palatable species, and to lead to increased production and less reliance on superphosphate and herbicides (e.g. Seis, 2001). Others, (e.g. Wilson, 1994) have raised questions about time-control or cell grazing, arguing that it is being applied without the necessary consideration to the farm-specific pasture composition and grazing options. In addition, recent research by Dowling et al. (2005) has failed to show consistent differences in pasture characteristics between continual and time-control grazed paddocks. Nonetheless, there is clear evidence that time-control grazing has improved the economical and environmental outcomes for some graziers (Seis, 2001). It should, therefore, be considered as a possible alternative to continual grazing.
Answer the following questions by clicking on the correct sample:
Which of the samples uses the first person (e.g. ‘I’)?
Which of the samples includes evidence counter to the main argument?
Which of the samples uses fewer emotive words?
Which of the samples do you think is expressed more objectively?
In standard scientific writing, aim to express yourself objectively.