Frequently asked questions

Click on those topics which interest you

1. What is scientific writing?
2. What is the difference between an essay and a report?
3. What is the difference between a general report, a practical report and a research report?
4. How do I write a science practical report?
5. Can I use 'I' in a science essay or report?
6. Can I put tables and diagrams in essays?
7. How do I write biological names?
8. How do I write numbers and units of measurement?
9. What do I have to reference?
10. How do I reference?
11. Why are word limits set and what do they mean? What if I am substantially over/under in number of words?

1. What is scientific writing?

The objectives of scientific writing are: precision, clarity and brevity. This is not a simple task.  As you edit your writing, test it against these three criteria by asking yourself, 'Have I said exactly what I mean?' and 'Is there a simpler, shorter way to say it?'

Elements of successful writing

1. Use logically organised paragraphs to present single coherent ideas.
2. Avoid redundancy and round-about phrasing.
   • The heart is responsible for the delivery of blood from within the heart to the system of arteries.
   • The heart pumps blood into the arteries.
3. Be as precise as possible in your use of language, especially in your choice of words, use of pronouns, and sentence structure.
   • It was observed by the researchers that the optimal treatment for plant growth was where they had nitrogen applied to them.
   • Optimal plant growth occurred after application of nitrogen.
4. Use the active voice rather than the passive voice.
   • Animals were checked by the surgeon for level of anaesthesia.
   • The surgeon checked the animals’ level of anaesthesia.
5. Avoid overusing nouns derived from verbs. Instead, simply use the verb from which the noun was derived.
   • … an increase occurred in the temperature …
   • … the temperature increased …
   • Weights of the animals were taken …      
   • The animals were weighed …
6. Vary your sentence lengths and keep them short and simple enough to be readily understood by your reader.
7. Use direct quotes sparingly.
8. Avoid using confusing strings of nouns or adjectives as pre-modifiers.
   • …soil nutrient supplying capacity evaluation…
   • …evaluation of the nutrient capacity of soils…
9. Avoid ambiguity caused by poor sentence structure, word choice and punctuation.
   • In Armidale where the threat of hailstorms is an annual event, we learned that it is important to become aware of the warning signs. There are precautions to take, and deciding when to take shelter is important.
   • Given the annual threat of hailstorms in Armidale, it is important to be aware of the warning signs, to know what precautions to take, and to decide when to take shelter.
10. Vary the way that you cite references. In particular, avoid frequent use of authors’ names at the beginning of sentences, as this tends to place emphasis on the author rather than the rest of the sentence.
    • Hansen (1987) found that crop yield was enhanced by the new fertiliser.
    • Crop yield was enhanced by the new fertiliser (Hansen, 1987).
11. Use your sentences to make your writing flow. There are two aspects to this.
    1. Use the beginning of sentences to orient your reader and to connect the new information to the content of preceding sentences. Try to avoid using empty words at the beginning of sentences.
    2. Put the most important information towards the end of your sentences. This is known as the stress position because it is where your readers will be paying most attention and expecting to find the main point of the sentence.
       • Meiosis contributes to the genetic diversity of offspring by two mechanisms. Crossing over of homologous chromosomes causes exchange of genetic information during the first phase of meiosis. Random assortment of maternal and paternal chromosomes occurs when homologous chromosomes are separated also in the first phase of Meiosis.
       • Two mechanisms during the first phase of meiosis contribute to the genetic diversity of offspring. Genetic information is exchanged when homologous chromosomes cross over and random assortment of maternal and paternal chromosomes occurs when the chromosomes separate.

 

2. What is the difference between an essay and a report?

Traditionally, academic essays and reports differ in many respects.  These differences are described below.

However, the distinction between an essay and a report can sometimes be blurred in undergraduate science units. In science 'essays' it is often viewed as acceptable or even desirable to use headings within the body of the essay (see the Writing samples in this site). Figures and tables can also be included in many science essays, and some units may require you to write an abstract for the essay. In addition, you will find when reading some unit handbooks, that the term ‘essay’ is used for an extended piece of writing, which, when the instructions are followed, turns out looking more like a report.

The take-home message is to read the instructions for every written assignment carefully and follow them precisely. You cannot assume that what is acceptable assignment format/ convention in one unit can be transferred over to other units. (This, by the way, reflects the writing demands of the real world - there is no single recipe.)

 

3. What is the difference between a general report, a research report and a practical report?

The aim of any report is to communicate information to the reader.  All reports have the same basic structure. However, while they begin and end with similar sections, the headings in the middle part of the report will vary according to the type of report and the subject matter.

Note: Always check your unit requirements for specific report writing instructions.

As a science student, you will undertake a number of research-based activities. These may include: formal laboratory classes, field trips, and assignments based on reading published scientific material. All these activities involve the collection of data from experiments, surveys and written material. At times you will be required to report on your findings.

A report is the formal writing-up of a piece of research or project work. The three most common styles of report are the general report, research report and prac report.

General report

Reports are structured in similar ways with information presented under clear headings.

Research report

A research report at postgraduate level is usually modelled on specific journal requirements.  You should check the specified journal and follow its submission requirements exactly. In undergraduate units, guidance is usually provided in your unit handbooks.  It is common for the following sections to be included:

Practical report

Laboratory or prac classes often need reports. See FAQ No 4, below.

 

4. How do I write a science practical report?

Scientific practical reports commonly use the following format:

It is very important that you understand the role of each of these sections, and make sure that in your report you organise your information accordingly.  You may have subheadings of your choice within the main sections (Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion). Sections in a scientific report at undergraduate level are not usually numbered.

General points

• Aim for brevity and clarity.
• The standard rules for academic writing apply, (e.g. correct referencing; correct English; non-sexist language; correct spelling).
• Write in the third person (e.g. not: ‘I mixed the solution’, but ‘The solution was mixed’). Although there is a growing trend away from this convention, you should follow it if you are unsure of your lecturer’s requirements.
• Use unemotive language, even when discussing emotionally charged issues you might feel strongly about, (e.g. genetic engineering and land clearing). It is more powerful to use calm synthesis and analysis of results and the literature to support your case.
• Use correct SI units and standard abbreviations. See FAQ No. 8: How do I write numbers and units of measurement?
• Italicise scientific names (e.g. Rattus fuscipes). See FAQ No. 7: How do I write biological names?
• Leave a 3-4 cm left hand margin for comments and feedback.
• Word process your report if possible (most units require this). Make sure you use the spelling and grammar check functions on your computer with caution.

 

5. Can I use 'I' in a science essay or report?

Limit the use of ‘I’ in reports and essays.

Much academic writing requires you to stand back and analyse as an objective onlooker. ‘I’ is rarely used.

To place emphasis on the experiment or the information, use the passive voice (e.g. the specimens were identified) rather than the active voice (e.g. I identified the specimens). 

In constructing an argument, avoid the use of ‘I’, (e.g. instead of I found or I concluded, use expressions such as the evidence suggests or it may be concluded).  Occasionally, it may be appropriate to convey directness and a sense of involvement by using the first person and active voice. For more information on how to use active and passive voice see Workshop Topic 1, Task A: Understanding active and passive voice.  

 

6. Can I put tables and diagrams in essays?

YES, in most cases you can insert tables and diagrams in your essay. However, you need to make sure they are relevant, correctly labelled and that you refer to them in your text. The sources of all tables and figures must be acknowledged unless they are entirely from your own work.

How to insert tables and diagrams in an essay or report

At times, subject matter is most clearly presented in a table or in graphic form (e.g. diagrams, graphs, photographs, maps). It is essential that they are correctly integrated within the text.

• Every table or figure (including those in the appendix) must be referred to in text before you insert it. Introduce the figure by telling the reader what to focus on in the figure. Then, lead out of the figure by linking the illustrated point to the next point.
• Tables and figures should be placed as near as possible in the text to where they are first mentioned.
• The title for a table goes ABOVE the table.
• The title for a figure goes BELOW the figure.
• All titles of tables and figures must be followed by the appropriate reference using UNE referencing conventions. See also, Topic 2, Task B: Citing tables and figures in your text.
• There should be two numbering series: one for graphics (referred to as 'figures') and one for tables.  All figures and tables are numbered according to your own work (e.g. the second figure in your essay becomes 'Figure 2'). You may give it your own title or use the original title. Be sure that the title is appropriate for your context, and not the context of the source.
• Large and complex illustrations such as geological cross sections may be best placed in an appendix. Tables and graphics in appendices are numbered according to the appendix number (e.g. Appendix 1 Figure 1).

 

7. How do I write biological names?

You will need to observe the conventions for capitalisation and style used for scientific names.

The table below summarises the conventions for capitalisation and italics of categories of animals and plants.

There are usually two parts to a scientific name: the genus, followed by the species part of the name. Both are written in italics with the genus name beginning with a capital first letter (e.g. Eucalyptus mannifera).

Rules to remember

• Write the genus name in full on first mention. Subsequent mention of that genus is abbreviated to the capital letter followed by a full stop, except where there has been an intervening mention of another genus beginning with the same letter. For example:

Common species in the area included Eucalyptus mannifera, E. rossii, Exocarpos cupressiformis and Acacia ulicifolia. Occasional plants of Eucalyptus macroryhncha were also seen.

• Always use a species name with the genus name.
• If a species name is unknown, state that you are referring to a species of that genus. For example:

A species of Eucalyptus was tested for leaf toxins.

The trees growing on the reserve were mostly Eucalyptus species, with some rainforest elements in the gullies.

• In a list, you can abbreviate species to sp. (singular) or spp. (plural). For example:

The trees growing on the reserve were:
Eucalyptus spp.
Acacia sp., A. baileyana
Casuarina spp.

• The abbreviations ‘sp.’ for species, ‘subsp.’ for subspecies and ‘var.’ for variety are not italicised. For example:

Eucalyptus mannifera subsp. maculosa

Eucalyptus mannifera  subsp. maculosa

• Refer to animals and plants by their full scientific name, as well as by their common name (if they have one) at first mention. Thereafter, be consistent in using either scientific or common names. For most formal academic writing, scientific names are used rather than common names.
• If you are using a common name that is the same as a genus name, do not capitalise the initial letter, and do not include the species name. For example:

The Eucalyptus tree was infested by scarab beetles (Anoplognathus sp.).

The eucalyptus tree was infested by scarab beetles (Anoplognathus sp.).

• The word ‘genus’ is singular, and its plural form is the word ‘genera’. The word ‘species’ is both singular and plural. For example:

Five genus of the Myrtaceae were present at the site.

Five genera of the Myrtaceae were present at the site.

The specie was difficult to identify.

The species was difficult to identify.

 

8. How do I write numbers and units of measurement?

There are a number of conventions that apply to the use of numbers in scientific writing.

• A number at the beginning of a sentence is always written out, (e.g. Forty five samples were taken).
• Numbers below ten are written in words; for example, four. Numbers 10 and greater are written as numerals, (e.g. 36).
• Numerals are always used with standard units of measurement, (e.g. 100 mL).
• Where values are smaller than one, always insert a zero, (e.g. 0.75  not  .75) .
• Use scientific notation for very large and very small numbers, for example:

  Number	Scientific Notation
  49100000	4.91 x 107
  0.000025	2.5 x 10-5

• Ensure you are working to an acceptable level of precision. For instance, 5, 5.0 and 5.00 indicate different degrees of precision.
• Take care to distinguish between a zero result and no result. Zero results should be shown as ‘0’ and no results as ‘-’.

How to write units of measurement

• When recording measured quantities, always use the appropriate SI (Systeme Internationale) units in the correct format; for example, m² , µL, s.
• In a table, the unit of measurement is given in the column heading.

 

9. What and why do I have to reference?

Much of your written work at university is based on the ideas of other writers. Whenever you have used another author’s theory, opinion, idea, example, conclusion, or findings, even in your own words, you must say from whom you took it, and where the original can be found. You do this to:

• show that you have read and understood the research published in your area of interest
• lend authority to what you are writing
• strengthen your argument
• support your own ideas
• provide details or background to what you are writing
• allow follow up
• provide interest
• avoid the charge of plagiarism.

Information that is considered to be common knowledge in the field does NOT need a reference.

For more information see Avoiding plagiarism and academic misconduct and UNE referencing.

 

10. How do I reference?

Use an the APA system

Check your lecturer's instructions in your unit notes

The sciences generally use an Author-date system of referencing. Numerical systems such as footnoting are generally not used. Author-date systems acknowledge the author, year of publication (and page number when using quotations) in the text. Full details of these sources are provided in an attached reference list which is arranged alphabetically by author's surname (not separated into sections, e.g. books, articles). Sciences at UNE use the APA system. Information on using the APA system can be found in UNE referencing, the ASO referencing fact sheets, and the UNE policy on Avoiding plagiarism. For more information about how to reference and some examples see Workshop Topic 2 .  

Note: It is essential to check with your lecturer or unit notes for any specific referencing requirements.

 

 

11. Why are word limits set, and what do they mean?  What if I am substantially under/over in number of words?   

Word limits are set to enable you to develop the ability to select the relevant material and to present it concisely. If you are having trouble reaching the limit, it is likely that you are not going into enough detail (maybe not having researched enough). If you are way over the word limit, you may be incorporating irrelevant information, going into too much detail, or being repetitive in your writing. Where word limits are set, they must be adhered to. Ten percent above or below the word limit is acceptable; more than this is likely to lose marks. The penalty is often a minimum deduction of 10% of the marks gained.

Unless otherwise specified, the word count is simply the count obtained by highlighting the entire essay (excluding the list of references and any appendices) and using the 'word count' tool on your wordprocessor. Hence, it includes all words in the essay and in-text references. If you want to exclude words contained within tables, you will have to highlight these separately and deduct the number of words from the total. Beware of making excessive use of long tables and/or appendices to squeeze in substantially more words than the limit – this practice is generally not appreciated by those marking your writing.